An taking off fromAn airplane or aeroplane (informally plane) is a, that is propelled forward by from a,. Airplanes come in a variety of sizes, shapes,. The broad spectrum of uses for airplanes includes, of goods and people, and research. Worldwide, transports more than four billion passengers annually on and transports more than 200 billion - of cargo annually, which is less than 1% of the world's cargo movement.

Most airplanes are flown by a pilot on board the aircraft, but some are designed to be such as drones.The invented and flew the first airplane in 1903, recognized as 'the first sustained and controlled heavier-than-air powered flight'. They built on the works of dating from 1799, when he set forth the concept of the modern airplane (and later built and flew models and successful passenger-carrying ).

Airports Fiji Limited (AFL) commenced the terminal modernisation project at Nadi International Airport in July 2013. Termed as the Nadi Airport Terminal Modernisation Project, the upgrade aimed to enhance the passenger travel experience and optimise the airport’s commercial revenue.

Between 1867 and 1896, the German pioneer of human aviation also studied heavier-than-air flight. Following its limited use in, aircraft technology continued to develop. Airplanes had a presence in all the major battles of.

The first was the German in 1939. The first, the, was introduced in 1952. The, the first widely successful commercial jet, was in commercial service for more than 50 years, from 1958 to at least 2013. In mid-flight, c.

1895 AntecedentsMany stories from antiquity involve flight, such as the of and, and the in ancient. Around, was reputed to have designed and built the first artificial, self-propelled flying device, a bird-shaped model propelled by a jet of what was probably steam, said to have flown some 200 m (660 ft). This machine may have been suspended for its flight.Some of the earliest recorded attempts with were those by the 9th-century poet and the 11th-century monk; both experiments injured their pilots. Researched the wing design of birds and designed a man-powered aircraft in his (1502).In 1799, set forth the concept of the modern airplane as a fixed-wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion, and control. Cayley was building and flying models of fixed-wing aircraft as early as 1803, and he built a successful passenger-carrying in 1853. In 1856, Frenchman made the first powered flight, by having his glider 'L'Albatros artificiel' pulled by a horse on a beach.

Then also made some innovative designs. In 1883, the American made a controlled flight in a glider. Other aviators who made similar flights at that time were, and.Sir built a craft that weighed 3.5 tons, with a 110-foot (34 m) wingspan that was powered by two 360-horsepower (270 kW) steam engines driving two propellers. In 1894, his machine was tested with overhead rails to prevent it from rising. The test showed that it had enough lift to take off. The craft was uncontrollable, which Maxim, it is presumed, realized, because he subsequently abandoned work on it.In the 1890s, conducted research on wing structures and developed a that lifted the weight of a man. His box kite designs were widely adopted.

Although he also developed a type of rotary aircraft engine, he did not create and fly a powered fixed-wing aircraft.Between 1867 and 1896, the German pioneer of human aviation Otto Lilienthal developed heavier-than-air flight. He was the first person to make well-documented, repeated, successful gliding flights.Early powered flights. Between 1906 and 1907In 1906, made what was claimed to be the first airplane flight unassisted by and set the first world record recognized by the by flying 220 meters (720 ft) in less than 22 seconds. This flight was also certified by the FAI.An early aircraft design that brought together the modern was the design of 1908. It had movable tail surfaces controlling both yaw and pitch, a form of roll control supplied either by wing warping or by ailerons and controlled by its pilot with a and rudder bar. It was an important predecessor of his later -crossing aircraft of the summer of 1909.served as a testbed for the use of the airplane as a weapon. Airplanes demonstrated their potential as mobile observation platforms, then proved themselves to be machines of war capable of causing casualties to the enemy.

The earliest known aerial victory with a synchronized machine gun-armed occurred in 1915, by German Leutnant. Appeared; the greatest (by number of Aerial Combat victories) was.Following WWI, aircraft technology continued to develop.

Crossed the Atlantic non-stop for the first time in 1919. The first international commercial flights took place between the United States and Canada in 1919.Airplanes had a presence in all the major battles of. They were an essential component of the military strategies of the period, such as the German, The, and the American and Japanese aircraft carrier campaigns of the.Development of jet aircraftThe first practical was the German, which was tested in 1939. In 1943, the, the first operational jet fighter aircraft, went into service in the German. In October 1947, the was the first aircraft to exceed the speed of sound.The first, the, was introduced in 1952. The, the first widely successful commercial jet, was in commercial service for more than 50 years, from 1958 to 2010. The was the world's biggest passenger aircraft from 1970 until it was surpassed by the in 2005.Propulsion.

AnAn, or airscrew, converts rotary motion from an or other power source, into a swirling slipstream which pushes the propeller forwards or backwards. It comprises a rotating power-driven hub, to which are attached several radial -section blades such that the whole assembly rotates about a longitudinal axis. Three types of aviation engines used to power propellors include (or piston engines), engines,. The amount of thrust a propeller creates is determined by its disk area—the area in which the blades rotate. If the area is too small, efficiency is poor, and if the area is large, the propeller must rotate at a very low speed to avoid going supersonic and creating a lot of noise, and not much thrust.

Because of this limitation, propellers are favored for planes that travel at below 0.6, while jets are a better choice above that speed. Propeller engines may be quieter than jet engines (though not always) and may cost less to purchase or maintain and so remain common on light general aviation aircraft such as the. Larger modern propeller planes, such as the, use a jet engine to turn the propeller, primarily because an equivalent piston engine in power output would be much larger and more complex.Reciprocating engine. Main articles:, andin aircraft have three main variants,. The radial engine is a reciprocating type internal combustion engine configuration in which the cylinders 'radiate' outward from a central crankcase like the spokes of a wheel and was commonly used for aircraft engines before gas turbine engines became predominant.

An inline engine is a reciprocating engine with banks of cylinders, one behind another, rather than rows of cylinders, with each bank having any number of cylinders, but rarely more than six, and may be water-cooled. A flat engine is an internal combustion engine with horizontally-opposed cylinders.Gas turbine. The supersonic transport aircraftare propelled by, which are used because the aerodynamic limitations of propellers do not apply to jet propulsion. These engines are much more powerful than a reciprocating engine for a given size or weight and are comparatively quiet and work well at higher altitude. Variants of the jet engine include the and the, which rely on high airspeed and intake geometry to compress the combustion air, prior to the introduction and ignition of fuel. Provide thrust by burning a fuel with an oxidizer and expelling gas through a nozzle.TurbofanMost modern jet planes use jet engines, which balance the advantages of a propeller while retaining the exhaust speed and power of a jet.

This is essentially a ducted propeller attached to a jet engine, much like a turboprop, but with a smaller diameter. When installed on an airliner, it is efficient so long as it remains below the (or subsonic). Jet fighters and other that do not spend a great deal of time supersonic also often use turbofans, but to function, air intake ducting is needed to slow the air down so that when it arrives at the front of the turbofan, it is subsonic. When passing through the engine, it is then re-accelerated back to supersonic speeds. To further boost the power output, fuel is dumped into the exhaust stream, where it ignites. This is called an and has been used on both pure jet aircraft and aircraft although it is only normally used on combat aircraft due to the amount of fuel consumed, and even then may only be used for short periods of time. ) are no longer in use largely because flight at supersonic speed creates a, which is prohibited in most heavily populated areas, and because of the much higher consumption of fuel supersonic flight requires.Jet aircraft possess high cruising speeds (700–900 km/h or 430–560 mph) and high speeds for and (150–250 km/h or 93–155 mph).

Due to the speed needed for takeoff and landing, jet aircraft use and to control the lift and speed. Many jet aircraft also use to slow down the aircraft upon landing.Ramjet. Artist's concept of X-43A with attached to the undersideA ramjet is a form of jet engine that contains no major moving parts and can be particularly useful in applications requiring a small and simple engine for high-speed use, such as with missiles. Ramjets require forward motion before they can generate thrust and so are often used in conjunction with other forms of propulsion, or with an external means of achieving sufficient speed.

The was a Mach 3+ ramjet-powered reconnaissance drone that was launched from a. A ramjet uses the vehicle's forward motion to force air through the engine without resorting to turbines or vanes. Fuel is added and ignited, which heats and expands the air to provide thrust.

In flight, 1947In, the Germans deployed the. The first plane to break the in level flight was a rocket plane – the. The later broke many speed and and laid much of the groundwork for later aircraft and spacecraft design.

Rocket aircraft are not in common usage today, although are used for some military aircraft. Recent rocket aircraft include the and the.There are many rocket-powered aircraft/spacecraft planes, the, that are designed to fly outside Earth's atmosphere.Design and manufacture. Assembly line of the at, ’s Advanced Development Programs (ADP).Most airplanes are constructed by companies with the objective of producing them in quantity for customers. The design and planning process, including safety tests, can last up to four years for small turboprops or longer for larger planes.During this process, the objectives and design specifications of the aircraft are established.

First the construction company uses drawings and equations, simulations, wind tunnel tests and experience to predict the behavior of the aircraft. Computers are used by companies to draw, plan and do initial simulations of the aircraft. Small models and mockups of all or certain parts of the plane are then tested in wind tunnels to verify its aerodynamics.When the design has passed through these processes, the company constructs a limited number of prototypes for testing on the ground. Representatives from an aviation governing agency often make a first flight. The flight tests continue until the aircraft has fulfilled all the requirements.

Then, the governing public agency of aviation of the country authorizes the company to begin production.In the United States, this agency is the (FAA), and in the European Union, (EASA). An on 3 in the Airbus plant at.Regulations have resulted in reduced from aircraft engines in response to increased from growth in air traffic over urban areas near airports. Small planes can be designed and constructed by amateurs as homebuilts. Other can be assembled using pre-manufactured kits of parts that can be assembled into a basic plane and must then be completed by the builder.There are few companies that produce planes on a large scale. However, the production of a plane for one company is a process that actually involves dozens, or even hundreds, of other companies and plants, that produce the parts that go into the plane. For example, one company can be responsible for the production of the landing gear, while another one is responsible for the radar.

The production of such parts is not limited to the same city or country; in the case of large plane manufacturing companies, such parts can come from all over the world. The parts are sent to the main plant of the plane company, where the production line is located. In the case of large planes, production lines dedicated to the assembly of certain parts of the plane can exist, especially the wings and the fuselage. When complete, a plane is rigorously inspected to search for imperfections and defects.

After approval by inspectors, the plane is put through a series of to assure that all systems are working correctly and that the plane handles properly. Upon passing these tests, the plane is ready to receive the 'final touchups' (internal configuration, painting, etc.), and is then ready for the customer.

Characteristics. Main article:The structural parts of a fixed-wing aircraft are called the airframe. The parts present can vary according to the aircraft's type and purpose. Early types were usually made of wood with fabric wing surfaces, When engines became available for powered flight around a hundred years ago, their mounts were made of metal. Then as speeds increased more and more parts became metal until by the end of WWII all-metal aircraft were common. In modern times, increasing use of has been made.Typical structural parts include:.

One or more large horizontal wings, often with an cross-section shape. The wing deflects air downward as the aircraft moves forward, generating to support it in flight. The wing also provides stability in to stop the aircraft from rolling to the left or right in steady flight. The, which can carry a 250-tonne payload, has two vertical stabilizers. A, a long, thin body, usually with tapered or rounded ends to make its shape smooth. The fuselage joins the other parts of the airframe and usually contains important things such as the pilot, payload and flight systems.

A or fin is a vertical wing-like surface mounted at the rear of the plane and typically protruding above it. The fin stabilizes the plane's (turn left or right) and mounts the, which controls its rotation along that axis. A or, usually mounted at the tail near the vertical stabilizer. The horizontal stabilizer is used to stabilize the plane's (tilt up or down) and mounts the, which provide pitch control., a set of wheels, skids, or floats that support the plane while it is on the surface. On seaplanes, the bottom of the fuselage or floats (pontoons) support it while on the water. On some planes the landing gear retracts during flight to reduce drag.Wings.

Main article:The wings of a fixed-wing aircraft are static planes extending either side of the aircraft. When the aircraft travels forwards, air flows over the wings, which are shaped to create lift. This shape is called an and is shaped like a bird's wing.Wing structureAirplanes have flexible wing surfaces which are stretched across a frame and made rigid by the lift forces exerted by the airflow over them. Larger aircraft have rigid wing surfaces which provide additional strength.Whether flexible or rigid, most wings have a strong frame to give them their shape and to transfer lift from the wing surface to the rest of the aircraft. The main structural elements are one or more spars running from root to tip, and many ribs running from the leading (front) to the trailing (rear) edge.Early airplane engines had little power, and lightness was very important.

Also, early airfoil sections were very thin, and could not have a strong frame installed within. So, until the 1930s, most wings were too lightweight to have enough strength and external bracing struts and wires were added. When the available engine power increased during the 1920s and 30s, wings could be made heavy and strong enough that bracing was not needed any more. This type of unbraced wing is called a cantilever wing.Wing configuration. Captured wire-braced parasol monoplaneThe number and shape of the wings varies widely on different types. A given wing plane may be full-span or divided by a central into port (left) and starboard (right) wings. Occasionally, even more wings have been used, with the three-winged achieving some fame in WWI.

The four-winged and other designs have had little success.A has a single wing plane, a has two stacked one above the other, a has two placed one behind the other. When the available engine power increased during the 1920s and 30s and bracing was no longer needed, the unbraced or cantilever monoplane became the most common form of powered type.The wing is the shape when seen from above. To be aerodynamically efficient, a wing should be straight with a long span from side to side but have a short chord (high ). But to be structurally efficient, and hence light weight, a wing must have a short span but still enough area to provide lift (low aspect ratio).At transonic speeds (near the ), it helps to sweep the wing backwards or forwards to reduce drag from supersonic shock waves as they begin to form. The is just a straight wing swept backwards or forwards. Two prototypes, one with wings sweptThe is a triangle shape that may be used for a number of reasons.

As a flexible, it allows a stable shape under aerodynamic forces and so is often used for ultralight aircraft and even. As a supersonic wing, it combines high strength with low drag and so is often used for fast jets.A variable geometry wing can be changed in flight to a different shape. The transforms between an efficient straight configuration for takeoff and landing, to a low-drag swept configuration for high-speed flight. Other forms of variable planform have been flown, but none have gone beyond the research stage.Fuselage. Main article:A is a long, thin body, usually with tapered or rounded ends to make its shape smooth.

The fuselage may contain the, passengers, cargo or, fuel and engines. The pilots of manned aircraft operate them from a located at the front or top of the fuselage and equipped with controls and usually windows and instruments. A plane may have more than one fuselage, or it may be fitted with booms with the tail located between the booms to allow the extreme rear of the fuselage to be useful for a variety of purposes.Wings vs. Bodies Flying wing. The US-produced is a.

It has a flying wing configuration and is capable of intercontinental missionsA flying wing is a aircraft which has no definite. Most of the crew, payload and equipment are housed inside the main wing structure.The flying wing configuration was studied extensively in the 1930s and 1940s, notably by and in the United States, and and the in Germany.

After the war, a number of experimental designs were based on the flying wing concept, but the known difficulties remained intractable. Some general interest continued until the early 1950s but designs did not necessarily offer a great advantage in range and presented a number of technical problems, leading to the adoption of 'conventional' solutions like the and the. Due to the practical need for a deep wing, the flying wing concept is most practical for designs in the slow-to-medium speed range, and there has been continual interest in using it as a tactical design.Interest in flying wings was renewed in the 1980s due to their potentially low reflection cross-sections.

Relies on shapes which only reflect radar waves in certain directions, thus making the aircraft hard to detect unless the radar receiver is at a specific position relative to the aircraft - a position that changes continuously as the aircraft moves. This approach eventually led to the Northrop bomber. In this case the aerodynamic advantages of the flying wing are not the primary needs. However, modern computer-controlled systems allowed for many of the aerodynamic drawbacks of the flying wing to be minimized, making for an efficient and stable long-range bomber.Blended wing body. Computer-generated model of theBlended wing body aircraft have a flattened and airfoil shaped body, which produces most of the lift to keep itself aloft, and distinct and separate wing structures, though the wings are smoothly blended in with the body.Thus blended wing bodied aircraft incorporate design features from both a futuristic fuselage and flying wing design. The purported advantages of the blended wing body approach are efficient high-lift wings and a wide -shaped body.

This enables the entire craft to contribute to generation with the result of potentially increased fuel economy.Lifting body. Main article:A lifting body is a configuration in which the body itself produces. In contrast to a, which is a wing with minimal or no conventional, a lifting body can be thought of as a fuselage with little or no conventional wing. Whereas a flying wing seeks to maximize cruise efficiency at speeds by eliminating non-lifting surfaces, lifting bodies generally minimize the drag and structure of a wing for subsonic, and flight, or,. All of these flight regimes pose challenges for proper flight stability.Lifting bodies were a major area of research in the 1960s and 70s as a means to build a small and lightweight manned spacecraft.

The US built a number of famous lifting body rocket planes to test the concept, as well as several rocket-launched re-entry vehicles that were tested over the Pacific. Interest waned as the lost interest in the manned mission, and major development ended during the when it became clear that the highly shaped fuselages made it difficult to fit fuel tankage. Canards on theThe classic section wing is unstable in flight and difficult to control. Gtfo addon. Flexible-wing types often rely on an anchor line or the weight of a pilot hanging beneath to maintain the correct attitude. Some free-flying types use an adapted airfoil that is stable, or other ingenious mechanisms including, most recently, electronic artificial stability.In order to achieve stability and control, most fixed-wing types have an comprising a fin and rudder which act horizontally and a tailplane and elevator which act vertically.

These control surfaces can typically be trimmed to relieve control forces for various stages of flight. This is so common that it is known as the conventional layout. Sometimes there may be two or more fins, spaced out along the tailplane.Some types have a horizontal ' foreplane ahead of the main wing, instead of behind it. This foreplane may contribute to the lift, the trim, or control of the aircraft, or to several of these.Controls and instruments. Main article:When risk is measured by deaths per passenger kilometer, air travel is approximately 10 times safer than travel by bus or rail. However, when using the deaths per journey statistic, air travel is significantly more dangerous than car, rail, or bus travel.

Air travel insurance is relatively expensive for this reason—insurers generally use the deaths per journey statistic. There is a significant difference between the safety of airliners and that of smaller private planes, with the per-mile statistic indicating that airliners are 8.3 times safer than smaller planes. Environmental impact. Water vapor left by high-altitude jet. These may contribute to formation.Like all activities involving, fossil-fuel-powered aircraft release and other pollutants into the atmosphere.

Such as (CO 2) are also produced. In addition, there are environmental impacts specific to airplanes: for instance,. Airplanes operating at high altitudes near the (mainly large ) emit aerosols and leave, both of which can increase formation – cloud cover may have increased by up to 0.2% since the birth of aviation. Airplanes operating at high altitudes near the tropopause can also release chemicals that interact with greenhouse gases at those altitudes, particularly, which interact with ozone, increasing ozone concentrations. Most light piston aircraft burn, which contains (TEL).

Some lower-compression piston engines can operate on unleaded and turbine engines and diesel engines – neither of which require lead – are used on some newer. Some non-polluting light are already in production.Another environmental impact of airplanes is, mainly caused by aircraft taking off and landing.See also.